
Colonization, bloodshed, war crimes, occupation, disputed military bases.
These are all intertwined issues in the collective history of the United States, Japan, and the Philippines.
But when the leaders of the three countries sit down in the White House on Thursday, a major topic will be a much more contemporary concern that binds their relationship, a shared concern about China.
"The perceived threat of China has really brought these three countries together," said James DJ Broën, associate professor of political science at Temple University in Tokyo, ahead of this week's summit between US President Joe Biden, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida and Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos Jr.
But it is a potential conflict over Taiwan, the democratically ruled island that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) considers part of its territory despite never having controlled it, that dominates strategic thinking.
Chinese leader Xi Jinping has vowed to bring Taiwan under Beijing's control and has not shied away from using force to do so.
The Taiwan Relations Act obliges Washington to provide weaponry for the island's defense, and Biden has repeatedly said he would use US military personnel to defend it in the event of a Chinese invasion.
Both the Philippines and Japan are defense treaty allies of the US, and the US military maintains permanent bases in Japan and has basing rights in the Philippines.